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What kinds of graduate degrees are offered in psychology?
At the master's level there are usually two alternatives: the Master's of Science (M.S.) and Master's of Arts (M.A.). These degrees are offered in most of the specializations we talked about in the last section. If you elect to enter a master's program you can look forward to about two years of post-bachelor's study. Master's programs in psychology usually exist for one of two reasons. First, many master's programs train students for a particular profession (e.g., school, clinical, industrial/organizational psychology). Second, other programs are more general in nature and are designed to offer the initial training needed to pursue a doctoral degree. Some programs do a little of both.
At the doctoral level, most degrees in psychology are either Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) or Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.) degrees. Ph.D. degrees can be earned in any of the specialties listed in the last section. Psy.D. degrees are offered only in the areas of clinical, counseling, and school psychology. What is the difference? Traditionally, the Ph.D. degree in any academic area implies research competence. People who obtain their Ph.D. in physiological, cognitive, social, or experimental psychology are basically trained to do research in those specialties. People who obtain a Ph.D. in clinical, counseling, school, or industrial/organizational psychology must take courses and participate in research in addition to their training to practice their specialty. The Psy.D. degree is not a research oriented degree; it is oriented toward practice of psychology in the same way that the M.D. degree is oriented toward the practice of medicine. Persons who earn a Psy.D. degree must take courses to learn how to evaluate research, but generally, they are not required to implement experimental research projects. So, if you are primarily interested in practical application of psychology, then the Psy.D. degree might be your best choice. In general, completion of a doctoral degree in psychology takes 46 years of post-bachelor's study. For those in clinical, counseling, and school psychology programs this includes a full-year internship in an applied setting.
It should be pointed out there is one area of psychology that frequently deviates from these rules regarding degrees in psychology: school psychology. There are quite a few school psychology programs which offer the M.Ed. and Ed.D. for obvious reasons.
Also, this would be a good place to clear up some common
misconceptions about psychology in the public school systems. Frequently, students say
they want to teach psychology in high school or they want to be a guidance counselor in
the school system. Unfortunately, neither of these goals is typically attainable by
majoring in psychology at the undergraduate level. First, there are some states
which certify psychology teachers at a secondary level. However, there are not very many
of these. Second, in order to be a guidance counselor in most public school systems you
must 1) have a valid teaching certificate in some content area, 2) have teaching
experience (usually 2 or 3 years), and 3) have completed a Master's of Education degree in
guidance and counseling.
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Will earning a graduate degree improve my salary potential?
Yes! Generally, people with graduate degrees will increase
their income. Salaries of psychologists vary widely depending on their work setting and
years of employment. The American Psychological Association conducts a yearly survey of
salaries in psychology. A copy of this survey is readily available in the psychology
department. Take a look at the most recent survey. It will give you an idea of the levels
of remuneration for all types of psychologists.
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Where have psychology graduates attended graduate school?
Graduates from the Department of Psychology have been accepted to, and have attended a wide variety of graduate programs. Below is a partial list:
If you have made the decision that you want to work toward a graduate degree in psychology you should consult several sources. First, you should read this handbook. Second, you should consult with your advisor. After all, he/she has been through this experience and will have much firsthand knowledge that will be valuable to you. Next, visit the web site for the university, and locate the Department's homepage. Finally, you should familiarize yourself with several publications (see copies in the psychology office: Scully room 404). The first is entitled The Complete Guide to Graduate School Admission (Keith-Spiegel, 1991). This book tells everything you want to know about deciding upon and applying to a graduate program. The second is entitled Graduate Study in Psychology and Related Fields which is published approximately every two years by APA. This publication contains information on virtually all graduate programs in the U.S. and Canada. Some of the types of information available are listed below:
If you want to take a systematic and intelligent approach
to graduate school application, you must use these books.
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How do I decide where to apply? What are graduate schools looking for?
Earlier in this handbook we mentioned a study by Milton, Pollio, and Eison (1986) in which businesses and industries were asked what they look for in a prospective employee. That was only half of the study. The other half involved asking university faculty which factors were most important in choosing someone for admission to a graduate program. The following items were rated the most important for graduate admissions:
Keith-Spiegel (1991) also studied the factors that graduate school admissions committees find important. The following list of factors represents an abbreviated version of a more exhaustive list compiled by Keith-Speigel:
Are there any generalities that we can glean from these lists?
We think so. It should be obvious that performance in your undergraduate courses is very important. A look at Graduate Study in Psychology and Associated Fields (henceforth abbreviated GSPAF) shows the minimum grade point average most often preferred by graduate schools is 3.0. Some are lower; some are higher. But, this is the minimum GPA you should be striving for. If your final GPA is higher, great! If it is lower, you may have fewer options. It is especially important for you to get good grades in courses such as statistics, research methods, and learning & memory. Why? Because these courses most closely approximate the difficulty of graduate courses. If you do well in these courses, chances are good that you will do well in graduate school. It is also important for you to do well during your last two years of undergraduate school. Graduate schools typically put greater emphasis on your GPA during your junior and senior years.
Taking a broad range of courses is crucial. Graduate admissions committees are particularly impressed with students who take difficult courses in areas outside psychology. Courses in mathematics, biology, and computer science are particularly prized.
Another important factor for graduate admissions committees is the writing ability of the applicant. We said earlier that there is a premium placed upon writing ability by prospective employers. The same is true for graduate schools. Regardless of the type of graduate degree you pursue, being able to write accurate, concise reports is an important skill. Most graduate schools require some written information from you that will help them make admissions decisions.
A third important factor involves research. Even graduate programs in clinical psychology look favorably toward students who have taken the opportunity to get involved in the research process. It is unlikely that you will have any publications as an undergraduate; they are not that easy to obtain. However, there are several things related to publishing that may enhance your chances of getting a position in graduate school. Most publications in psychology journals are the result of research. As stated earlier, graduate schools look favorably upon applicants who can demonstrate previous research activity. Smith (1985) found that the second most important nonobjective criterion for graduate admission in psychology is previous research activity. You can obtain this experience by either getting involved in a personal research project and presenting the results at the ASPS, or by getting involved in the research of a faculty member.
Letters of recommendation are also important factors in the decisions of graduate admissions committees. Smith (1985) found letters of recommendation to be the most important nonobjective criterion for admission to a graduate program. Usually, three letters of recommendation are required. They should be written by faculty who know you well enough to be able to provide helpful information to the admissions committee regarding your potential for graduate work. If you have excelled in your courses and have shown a willingness to work beyond the levels typically expected, you will most likely receive glowing recommendations. Do not wait until your senior year to begin cultivating relationships with faculty whom you wish to write your letters. Start now! Remember, if all your letter writers can do is say he/she is a nice person, your chances for admission are reduced. Also, if you have had some work experience related to the degree you wish to pursue it would also be appropriate for your supervisor to write a letter of recommendation for you. You should have at least one faculty member who is quite familiar with you as a person and student. If you have worked quite closely with this faculty member, he/she can serve as a potent ally to your application's success.
Finally, standardized tests are considered to be important factors in determining your suitability for admission. You had to take either the ACT or the SAT exam to gain admission to undergraduate school. Likewise you will most likely have to take the GRE (Graduate Record Exam) to be considered for admission to a graduate program. The GRE is very similar to the SAT. It has three sections: verbal, quantitative, and analytical. Most graduate schools focus on the first two parts. Each section, verbal and quantitative, has a maximum score of 800. Therefore, a maximum score of 1600 is possible. Most graduate schools have a minimum combined GRE requirement of about 1000. Some are lower; some are higher. However, there are many schools whose minimum is 1000, but the average score of those admitted is closer to 1200 or 1300. What GRE score you need for admission varies greatly. It depends on the type of degree and specialty you want to pursue. In general, master's programs require lower GREs as compared to doctoral programs. It is important that you do your best on this standardized test. Admissions committees do not base acceptance solely on this score, but it is the only way they have to evaluate applicants on the same measurement scale.
We should also mention there is another part of the GREs
that is often required for admission. It is the advanced test in psychology. In this test
you are given approximately 200 multiple choice questions taken from all areas of
psychology. It is like a cumulative final for psychology majors. Most graduate programs in
psychology require you to take this test. One word of caution. DO NOT take this
test on the same day you take the aforementioned sections of the GRE. Take
them at different times to avoid brain drain!
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How do I decide where to apply?
The first thing you must do is sometimes painful. You need to take an HONEST, REALISTIC look at yourself both personally and academically. If you do not like working with peoples' problems, then applying to a clinical or counseling program is probably not a wise idea. You must take complete stock of your personal desires and attributes. Your advisor and/or the Career Development Center can help you with this assessment.
You must also analyze your academic record in a realistic manner. What is your GPA? Have you been involved in any activities that demonstrate academic ability? What are your GRE scores? Can you count on good letters of recommendation? All of these questions relate to your attractiveness to a graduate admissions committee. If your overall GPA is 2.5 and you have an 850 combined verbal/quantitative score on the GRE you will be somewhat limited in your choice of a graduate program, but you probably will be admitted somewhere if you possess other characteristics that are marketable. On the other hand, if your overall GPA is 3.6 and your GREs are 1200, you have an excellent chance of being admitted. However, these high qualifications do not guarantee admission. One of your faculty members once knew a student with statistics like this. He applied to only the top Ph.D. programs in clinical psychology. None of them accepted him. Why? Because some Ph.D. clinical programs (especially the most highly rated programs) admit only 1 out of every 20 40 applicants. That's stiff competition! The moral to the story is this: APPLY INTELLIGENTLY.
To apply intelligently you should use the publications
mentioned earlier in this section (GSPAF & Keith-Spiegel, 1991). If you are
specifically interested in applying to a doctoral program in clinical psychology we
suggest that you also consult a book entitled Insider's Guide to Graduate Programs in
Clinical Psychology by Mayne, Norcross & Sayette (1994). Because you have
completed your self-assessment you can now look at the wide variety of programs available
along with their requirements, and determine which programs most closely match your
achievement levels. A good rule of thumb for the decision of where to apply is this; Apply
to several programs that closely match your abilities. Apply to a couple of places that
seem to require slightly higher statistics than you possess. Finally, it is also a good
idea to apply to a couple of places that seem to be sure bets, i.e., you are fairly sure
you will be admitted. We believe this is the best way to approach your decision of where
to apply.
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What if I want to attend a graduate school that has a Counseling emphasis?
There are growing numbers of graduate programs in
Counseling at a variety of universities. The Counseling Psychology Graduate Program
here at Southeast Missouri State University, for example, is quite excellent. That
counseling program is a 48 hour program where the vast majority of the students attend
class at night. Also, quite a number of these graduate students work full time. For
additional information about graduate school here at Southeast Missouri State University, click here. For information about the
Counseling Program, click
here. There are many other programs like this one, including the Counseling Programs
in Psychology and in Education at SIU-Carbondale. Talk to your advisor for guidance in
finding them.
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Can I get my master's degree now, work for a few years, then go on for my doctorate?
This is a difficult question to answer. If you believe you ultimately want to earn a doctoral degree, and there are no reasons for failing to pursue it now (e.g., financial or family considerations), by all means go for it! However, if you are not sure whether you want to earn a doctoral degree, or if admission to a doctoral program is in doubt due to low grades/GREs, then completing a masters program first may be an optimal strategy for you.
We used to think that most doctoral programs preferred to
admit students who had completed only the bachelor's degree. This allowed them to train
the student within their own system. But this bias seems to be more myth than reality.
Significant numbers of master's-level persons get admitted to doctoral programs. And there
are a few graduate schools (usually professional schools) that admit mostly master's-level
persons who have had some work experience. If you want to obtain a master's degree, then
pursue a doctoral degree later, we suggest you find out approximately how successful
graduates of your master's program are in getting admitted to doctoral study.
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Application to graduate school is a formidable task. Just keeping track of all the paper work is a difficult chore. However, you can minimize the frustrations by being as systematic as possible throughout this process. Keith-Spiegel's (1991) book is an invaluable aid for any student who is about to begin the application process. First, let's determine what you need to complete this process.
Application. Obviously, you need an application form. You obtain these directly from the graduate schools. It is a good idea to write to these schools for applications during the summer between your junior and senior years, or during the early part of the Fall semester. You may even begin this phase during the spring of your junior year. Application materials tell you exactly what you need to send to the school and the deadline for completion of your application.
Application Fee. Many graduate schools require an application fee that ranges from $5 to $50. Some do not require a fee. Others will waive the fee if you can demonstrate your inability to pay it.
Graduate Record Exams. As we've said before, you will most likely have to take the GRE exams. In most cases you will need to take the aptitude test and the subject test in psychology. GREs are given in October, December, February, April, and June. You should consider taking these exams during the summer and fall of your senior year. The absolute deadline would be December because it takes about 6 weeks for the scores to be reported, and you don't want to miss your application deadlines. In fact, if you take the test in December, you run the risk of missing a January 15 application deadline. These exams have gotten pretty expensive in recent years, so you may want to begin saving now!! Applications for the exams can be obtained from the Psychology Club in Scully room 320.
In addition to taking the GRE exams, you must arrange to have your scores sent to the places to which you have applied. The directions for doing this are supplied with the GRE application forms.
Biographical Statement. Most schools require a statement of your interests in psychology, some background information, and some perceptions of your career objectives. This essay is an important part of your application. You can supply information about yourself in essay form as opposed to the objective information contained on the application form. You will probably not be admitted to a program solely on the strength of your biographical essay, but a poor essay could conceivably cast doubt on your suitability for graduate work. So, you should follow some simple rules suggested by Fretz and Stang (1980) when writing this paper.
Letters of Recommendation. All graduate programs require letters of recommendation. Usually 3 or 4 are required. These letters contain other persons' evaluations of your suitability for graduate school. Your referees (that's what we call the persons who recommend you) will also be asked to give evaluations of your personal attributes as well. Sometimes you simply supply the names of the persons who will be your referees and the graduate school will contact them. Most likely, however, you will be sent several forms for you to pass on to your referees. Here are some tips for obtaining your letters.
Your referees will most likely be faculty members with whom you are familiar. You should use your psychology faculty as referees, for the most part. If you have participated in a field experience you may want to ask your supervisor to be one of your referees.
Be sure you ask the faculty members if it is OK to use them as a referee before you write their names on an application form. While it does not happen often, there are occasions in which a faculty member does not feel as though he/she can give you a strong recommendation. In these cases you should seek out another reference who feels as though he/she can give you an unqualified reference. See Keith-Spiegel (1991) for an excellent discussion of obtaining letters of recommendation.
Transcripts. Finally, you need to send transcripts
of your grades to complete your application. Obviously, at the time of application you may
still have a semester of undergraduate work to complete. That's OK. Your application will
still be evaluated. You may be required, however, to supply the graduate school with a
final transcript of your grades upon graduation.
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Each time you have arranged to have one of the items sent
to the graduate school you can put a check mark in the appropriate place. With a quick
glance you can see your progress in the application process.
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For a more complete discussion of the application process, we suggest the following publications:
Woods, P. J. (1987). Is psychology the major for you? Washington: APA.
Fretz, B. R., & Stang, D. J. (1980). Preparing for graduate study in psychology: not for seniors only. Washington: APA.
Keith-Spiegel, P. (1991). The complete guide to graduate school admission. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Mayne, T., Norcross, J. C., & Sayette, M. (1994). Insider's guide to graduate programs in clinical psychology. New York: Guilford Press.
Well, that sums up our introduction to what you can expect
as a psychology major. Note: we used the word introduction. We could have written at least
twice this much and still not covered some of the important aspects of being a psychology
major. You will undoubtedly have more specific questions as you progress toward
graduation. Remember, we are always ready to assist you in the planning of your
professional future. Don't hesitate to ask.
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American Psychological Association. (Revised biannually). Graduate study in psychology and associated fields. Washington, DC: Author.
Edwards, J., & Smith, K. (1988). What skills and knowledge do potential employers value in baccalaureate psychologists? In P. J. Woods (Ed.), Is psychology for them?: A guide to undergraduate advising. (pp. 102-111). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Fretz, B. R., & Stang, D. J. (1980). Preparing for graduate study: Not for seniors only. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Keith-Spiegel, P. (1991). The complete guide to graduate school admission: Psychology and related fields. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Mayne, T., Norcross, J. C., & Sayette, M. (1994). Insider's guide to graduate programs in clinical psychology. New York: Guilford Press.
Milton, O., Pollio, H., & Eison, J. (1986). Making sense of college grades. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
National Science Foundation. (1986). Characteristics of recent science/engineering graduates: 1984. Washington, DC: Author.
Pilla, L. (1984). The job search What college students say. Management World, 13, 19.
Smith, R. A. (1985). Advising beginning psychology majors for graduate school. Teaching of Psychology, 12, 194-198.
Winter, D. G., McClelland, D. C., & Stewart, A. J. (1981). A new case for the liberal arts: Assessing institutional goals and student development. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Woods, P. J. (Ed.) with Wilkinson, C. (1987). Is psychology the major for you?: Planning for your undergraduate years. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Woods, P. J. (Ed.). (1988). Is psychology for them?: A guide to undergraduate advising. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Zeller, M. J. (1988). Titles of jobs in human services for
students with a bachelor's degree in psychology. In P. J. Woods (Ed.), Is psychology
for them?: A guide to undergraduate advising. (pp. 195196). Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
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